Andrew Haley's fascinating book
Turning the Tables: Restaurants and the Rise of the American Middle Class,
1880-1920, is nominated for an upcoming
James Beard award and was also a 2012 International Association of Culinary
Professionals finalist. He teaches at the University of Southern Mississippi at
Hattiesburg and spoke over the phone in between classes about how the rich
fought to keep restaurants to themselves, believed any unaccompanied female was
a potential prostitute and why Europeans are bad about
tipping.
How did the American middle
class change restaurant culture?
The kind of food you choose to eat
and where you eat says a lot about the person you want to be. My book argues
that in the late 19th century this group of people felt excluded from upper
class restaurants that were predominantly in hotels in large cities. They served
French food often cooked by French chefs, with menus in French, and prices were
pretty high. For the middle class this meant these restaurants were largely
inaccessible. In today's dollars it would cost them $200 and that was if you
skimped and shared appetizers and avoided alcohol. I found a piece in the New
York Times in the 1890s on how to go to one of these fancy restaurants and keep
the bill reasonable. Also, what made it expensive was that unmarried couples had
to bring chaperones and pay for them as well. With urbanization, by 1902 or
1904, it was no longer assumed a chaperone would come along to
dinner.
So how did the middle class
break in?
Part of what happened is that, since
they were unable to experience these upper class restaurants, they looked around
for alternatives. They started to go to short-order working men's restaurants
and ethnic restaurants, slumming in undesirable parts of town. In the 1880s and
1890s there was a chop suey craze in New York that spread to the Midwest and the
South. People would go to family-oriented German restaurants, which then started
to hire more professional servers and put down tablecloths. This transformed
them from an immigrant restaurant to a working class
restaurant.
What was the oddest thing
about dining in a restaurant before 1900?
Chaperones were a big one. Etiquette
dictated that oftentimes the same rules of home entertaining applied to
restaurants. If you were invited out to a restaurant you had to return the favor
by inviting them to your home or to another restaurant. Dining in restaurants
also changed fashion. Before 1900, women wore ballroom gowns when they went out.
Then, in the early 1900s to the 19-teens, we started to see less structured
'restaurant dresses.' Corsets went away. The emergence of cabarets where you
might have a meal and a drink and a stage show, with an open floor for dancing,
really changed fashion. The influence of jazz changed the way people danced. It was
much more energetic than a waltz and required looser clothing.
As a former waitress who
still has friends in the industry, I wonder why Europeans don't know how to tip.
How did it end up developing in America as a practice but not in
Europe?
Americans got the idea of tipping
from Europeans. When rich Americans were visiting someone else's house in Europe
they were advised to leave a gift for the servants as a tip. It wasn't entirely
obligatory but tipping did take place in European cities at restaurants. What
happens is that upper class Americans picked this up and were becoming
incredibly wealthy so they tipped lavishly. Around 1900 the American economy was
booming. Europeans were shocked by the way Americans were tipping. They were
appalled that Americans came over and out-tipped them.
Over 100 years have gone by
and there's still a backlash with Europeans refusing to tip like vulgar
Americans?
It may have played a
role.
The American middle class
learned to tip from the upper class?
The American middle class was
horrified by tipping. Just as they were getting their foot in the door and
finally able to afford restaurants, the upper class could still out-tip them and
receive better service. Once you had the reputation of being a good tipper you
would get a better table. The middle class was incredibly upset about this and
called tipping un-American. It went against the idea of democracy. They were
getting bad service because they couldn't tip as much. This led to legislative
efforts in seven states to ban tipping. All of the anti-tipping laws were
repealed in the 1920s. They were unenforceable.
Waiters must have been
middle class themselves so it's interesting that the middle class was against
them getting tips.
It wasn't that they resented their
servers. They wanted a strong, standard wage for the wait staff, for it to be a
fairer system. The middle class believed tipping created a kind of
slavishness.
Has all this research
influenced the way you tip?
Yes, but I think the larger
influence on how I tip is being aware how poorly waiters and waitresses are paid
today. Plus, I have a wife in the industry -- she's a chef -- so we take tipping
very seriously. When I was young I was a host at a Howard Johnson's in
Portsmouth, New Hampshire and we had a lot of French-Canadian tourists come in.
They did not tip. They left amounts that were insulting by American standards,
which engendered a lot of animosity from the wait staff. Americans are more
committed to tipping than most cultures but the Americanization of the world
suggests tipping is becoming more prominent elsewhere.
In the early days of
restaurants service seemed deliberately stuffy, but now there's such an emphasis
on being nice.
If you look around today,
restaurants are designed to welcome everybody. Restaurant culture is much more
democratic and I believe it's rooted in this restaurant revolt of the early 20th
century. The American middle class created pressure on upper class restaurants
to let them in. The owners recognized there was a giant spending public out
there and they changed for them. They got rid of the menus in French and used
English and began to allow men and women to dine together.
How did women break the
barrier to be allowed into restaurants?
One of the most fascinating things I
learned about 19th century restaurants was that they didn't cater to women at
all unless they had a separate room for them. It was like something you'd see in
the Middle East today. Some of them bent the rules and allowed a woman into the
dining room if her husband accompanied her. Restaurateurs were fearful of loose
women, prostitutes trying to attract male patrons and get them to buy them
dinner. Middle class couples, who married for love, began to make a point of
dining out in restaurants and we see these policies restricting women begin to
change. Working women became much more respected in that
world.
When were women allowed to
start dining out when not accompanied by a man?
I came across a couple of really
interesting controversies. In the book I tell a story about a woman named
Harriet Stanton Blatch, a suffragist
who sued a restaurant in 1908 for being refused service because she had
arrived with a woman friend. She went to court and lost. The magistrate said
that by going into a restaurant and disregarding the rules, she was a disruptive
woman. This was at a restaurant called the Hoffman House in New York. Taking it
to court was an extraordinary thing.
Was she kind of a Rosa
Parks?
It appears that this restaurant did
allow women to dine in the afternoon and she and her friend got there later and
did not intend to cause trouble. Harriet Blatch wrote a biography about the
women's movement and her losing in court seems to have been enough of an
embarrassment that she left it out of her book. I found a reference to it in a
newspaper and dug into the story. Women's groups at the time were championing
her case and it eventually led to signs of change. The distinction became that
restaurants reserved the right to not seat a woman who did not appear ladylike.
There was an assumption that if you were rich it was perfectly acceptable for a
woman to drink or smoke in public. Not for the middle class. But once they got
their foot in the door they began to test the limits. In the 19-teens middle
class women started going into restaurants and lighting up cigarettes and
challenging the rules.
Do you see a clash today in
restaurants between the upper class and middle
class?
It's
blurred a little bit now. An upper class person might go to an ethnic
restaurant. The cost of going to an Olive Garden is not that different from
going to a more upper class restaurant. The barriers that existed before were
much more absolute. And Yelp is an amazing thing that gives everyone a
voice.
Turning the Tables: Restaurants and the Rise of the American Middle Class,
1880-1920
is out May 16th via the University of North Carolina Press.